Neuroscience
“The term neuroscience is broadly defined as the scientific study of the nervous system” (Beeson and Field, 2017, p. 72). The study of the nervous system looks at how cells within the nervous system interact with each other to form the brain, (Penttila, 2022). According to Oktar, (2006), these cell interactions regulate body functions, behaviour, memory, emotions, and consciousness. The brain comprises of billions of cells called neurons, and these are the building blocks of the brain. A neuron has three parts: soma, axon, and dendrites. The neurons communicate by passing chemical messages (neurotransmitters) at the small gaps between the neurons.
The brain is composed of three integrated parts, the hindbrain also known as the reptilian brain, ensures our survival, the midbrain or limbic system consists of the amygdala, deals with emotions, and the hippocampus is the part of the brian responsible for memory and houses long-term memory, if it is damaged it impairs our ability to learn (MacLean, 1990). The cortex is on the exterior of the brain, this deals with higher order thinking, language, and imagination (Hohnen and Murphy, 2016). “Neurologists refer to the brain’s capacity for modification as plasticity” (Grisel, 2019, p. 38). Brain plasticity refers to the fact that a brain changes and adapts to its environment” (Hohen & Murphy, 2016, p. 76).
Brain Development in Adolescence
The adolescent brain is still developing and does not fully mature until age twenty-five. According to Wong et al., (2013), the adolescent brain undergoes major change. The most significant changes are to the mesolimbic dopamine system, and VTA dopamine neuron activity peaks during adolescence.
Changes in the brain are possible and occur in periods of development such as adolescence, specifically the prefrontal cortex. The limbic region of the brain involved with reward behaviour matures faster than the cerebral cortex region, the reasoning part of the brain. The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature and plays a significant role in cognitive functioning. Hence, adolescent vulnerability to alcohol and drug use, leading to addiction. (Dana.org. 2021).
Adolescence is a time of physical and mental growth and development; adolescents become more independent, they develop socially, and they associate more with their peers than their family. Adolescents become increasingly aware of their sense of self and their identity, and how they view themselves in comparison to their peers. Adolescents want to belong to ‘their tribe’ and they are inclined to take risks, both factors influence the choices they make in relation to alcohol and drugs.
Addiction in Adolescence
People can be predisposed to developing addiction. Addiction does not develop in isolation, “addiction results from a complex web of factors, including a genetic predisposition, developmental influences, and environmental input” (Grisel, 2019, p. 4). “The answer to the addiction crisis is not solely in the brain, but must include the context” (Grisel, 2019, p. 214). Context includes personality, parents and parenting, infant attachment experience, family relationships, childhood abuse, socioeconomic background, education, addiction in the family, exposure to drugs, poverty, and parental attitudes to drugs and alcohol.
Cannabis is the most accessible illicit drug and is described as a ‘gateway’ to other drugs. Cannabis users are more likely to use other drugs, and the cannabis effects on the adolescent brain, increases their likelihood to use other drugs. (Leung, et al., cited in Essau and Delfabbro, 2020). Cocaine use in adolescence is on the increase, for example, in Ireland, 2.2 million (2.1%) of young adults aged 15 -34, used cocaine in 2021 (HRB, National Drugs Library, 2022).
In addition to drugs and alcohol addiction, other addictions include food, gambling, pornography, and sex addiction.
Food addiction is common in adolescence. Fat, sugar, and salt are three foods that can become highly addictive (Goodman, 2012). Avena et al., (2008), reviewed evidence for sugar addiction, they found the intake of sugar can have similar effects as addictive drugs do, on the brain. “Intermittent access to sugar can lead to behavior and neurochemical changes that resemble the effects of a substance of abuse” (Avena et al., 2008, p. 15). There are similarities between food addictions and eating disorders, but there are many differences (Goodman, 2012).
Impact of addiction on the developing brain
Neuroscience is providing information on the negative impact of addictive drugs on the developing brain in adolescence, and the consequences for brain functioning in adulthood, (Dayon et al., 2010). The current research confirms links between drug use, addiction, and deleterious brain development (Guerria and Pascuala, 2019). There can be profound and long-lasting neurobiological, cognition and behavioural dysfunction consequences for young people exposed to addictive substances and can leave them predisposed to drug abuse in adulthood (Guerri and Pascaul, 2019).
Conclusion
Significant articles have been written, and extensive research evidence has accrued over the last twenty years, in relation to drugs, alcohol, addiction and adolescent brain development (Oktar, 2006; Dayan et al., 2010; Grisel, 2019; Haelle, 2019, Kohno, et al., 2019; Wong et al., 2013). It is well documented in the literature that drug abuse has a detrimental effect on adolescent brain development and leaves them vulnerable to addiction in adulthood (Guerri and Pascual, 2019; Haelle, 2019; Caffino, et al. 2021). The increase in adolescents experimenting and using drugs, has significant long-term effects on their brain development (Caffino, et al., 2021), this in turn has implications for their future, families, and society (Grisel, 2019). Consequently, they may continue drug abuse into adulthood, and this will impact their overall development, including education attainment and career opportunities. Illegal drugs have criminal elements, and the laws in several countries prohibit these drugs. Adolescents risk breaking the law, getting criminal records, and dropping out of life. This can lead to them falling behind their peers in their development, leaving them vulnerable to isolation, and social disconnection.
The reality is addiction has been around for centuries, and there is a high probability that adolescents will experiment with drugs and take risks. How do we reach this population to inform them of the damage to their brain development, and the potential long-term impact of drug use/abuse? Is abstinence the only way to recover, or is the harm reduction model an option? It is worth considering Portugal’s drug policy (2000), they decriminalised the acquisition and possession of drugs for personal use, and a national harm reduction policy was established (RÊGO, et al., 2021).
There is a growing epidemic of drug abuse in Ireland (HRB National Drugs Library, 2022). The author strongly believes we must look at other ways of dealing with drug addiction. Policies and laws in relation to the supply and use of currently illegal drugs need to be reviewed, addiction is a health issue, and not a criminal justice problem. Research into comorbidity and dual diagnosis is required. Addiction rarely exists in isolation to other illnesses. In 2023, there was a Citizens ‘Assembly convened in Ireland to review all aspects of drug culture, treatment, and policies in Ireland. The aim of the assembly was to make recommendations for best practice, and policies for the future (Assembly on Drugs use, 2023).
Society requires education on all aspects and nuances of addiction including how addicts and addiction are perceived, and the language used around addiction. Addicts are human beings who need help and support, not ostracisation from society. They become isolated through their addiction; however, they require human love, connection, and belonging with other human beings to recover. Humans and their communities need to interact with each other, as addicts will not recover in isolation, they crave belonging and honest connection to other people. According to Mate, where there is addiction there is pain, and anyone working with addicts need to help them understand their pain (Mate, 2022).
References
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